When we think of India’s great empires, the first one that typically comes to mind is that of the Mughals. Their empire, which started with Babur, in 1526 and continued until the mid nineteenth century, is remembered for its art, architecture, administration and cultural mixing. However, history is a much larger stage than the Mughal one. India is a land of overlapping kingdoms and empires and many kingdoms and empires predated the Mughals in this context, and continued for some time beyond the Mughal period, too. Very few of these kingdoms and empires are known to most people simply because they didn’t attract the attention of historians, were overshadowed by larger narratives, or were limited to more regional histories. Their memory serves as an indicator of historical continuity, survival, and stable, long term political arrangements that existed successfully but without much notice.
The Chalukya dynasty of southern India serves as a prime example of this occurrence. From the 6th century CE onward, the Chalukyas carved an empire that covered the entire Deccan Plateau. They maintained their hegemony for many centuries under different branches: Badami, Eastern Chalukyas, and Western Chalukyas, firmly placing them in Indian history for almost 600 years. The Chalukyas left behind exquisite works of architecture especially the temples in Badami, Aihole, and Pattadakal—which are known as one of the pillars of temple architecture in India. While the Mughal era dazzled with marble and domes, the Chalukyas broke the ground with stone and established cultural icons that still inspire temple architecture in the country.
Another dynasty that endured longer in time than the Mughals was the Ahom dynasty in Assam, which does not often appear in the established narrative of history. The Ahoms ruled Assam for an incredible 600 years, beginning in 1228 CE and continuing until the early 19th century when their kingdom ended due to the Burmese invasion and British colonization. While the Mughals may have had an empire that “rose and fell” in splendor, the Ahoms thrived in the stable and secure kingdom of the Northeast. They were able to stave off repeated raids and attacks by the Mughals, including during the Battle of Saraighat in 1671 when Ahom General Lachit Borphukan led his forces to victory. The Ahoms’ considerable influence on Assam’s administration, culture, and identity is noteworthy as they absorbed their Tai identity into the culture and traditions of the local population. This blending has provided a lasting legacy of governance and cultural mingling.
Equally significant but significantly less recognized is the Chola dynasty of Tamil Nadu. For nearly 1,500 years with varying degrees of intensity from the early Cholas of the 3rd century BCE through the expansive imperial Cholas of the 9th through the 13th centuries CE the Cholas were a force throughout the known world, encompassing much of the Indian oceans. Their control of the waters set them apart from nearly every Indian dynasty. At their zenith under rulers like Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, their influence extended throughout South India, and even into Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Southeast Asia. Their temple architecture, in particular, the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur, stands as an enduring legacy of both grandeur and engineering expertise. While the Mughal empire dazzled with centralized authority and Persianization, the Cholas left behind a legacy of rich and multifaceted cultural and political organization that persisted well into the centuries long after their dynasty concluded.
After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, the Deccan witnessed the emergence of another long-lived dynasty known as the Satavahanas. They may have appeared in the first century BCE and reigned for approximately 400 years. Although they did not last as long as the Cholas or the Ahoms, the Satavahana empire lasted for longer than the great Mughals. The Satavahanas were active in establishing commercial ties between northern and southern India, and their location along the major trade routes allowed them to dominate trade and commerce with Rome and Southeast Asia. They also made noteworthy contributions to the spread of Buddhism, leaving behind monuments and stupas that still attract both pilgrims and scholars.
To the north of them, the Kanchipuram Pallavas exercised power from about the 3rd century CE to the 9th century CE, establishing a foothold in Tamil Nadu. They ruled longer than the Mughal Empire, presenting India with some of its earliest examples of rock-cut and structural temples, such as those established at Mahabalipuram. The cultural significance of the Pallavas is extensive, with the Dravidian style of architecture they established forming the basis for nearly every subsequent South Indian temple.
Some dynasties flourished, even more than others, while the Mughals rose and fell in relatively later times. The Rajputs maintained political and cultural dominance through their many small kingdoms in this region, Rajasthan, for almost a millennia, from about the 7th century CE until the 19th century British consolidation of power. The Rajputs did not constitute one dynasty in the sense of ruling authority, but as a political entity of warrior clans, they did demonstrate continuity, durability, and cultural survival in a manner that often predated Mughal hegemony in North India.
The Vijayanagara Empire also deserves to be discussed. Despite occurring over a shorter time frame than some others, spanning from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth, it existed and contended with the Mughals, and then fought against the Mughals, establishing a significant cultural and political legacy in South India. The empire’s capital city of Hampi, once one of the richest cities in the world, provides an indication of how influential regional kingdoms flourished even while the Mughals held primacy in the North.
What these examples demonstrate is that India’s political and cultural history cannot be reduced solely to the Mughal period. The Mughal Empire was undoubtedly impressive, but it was just one piece of a crossword puzzle of forgotten dynasties that ruled far longer, were significantly productive culturally, and whose continuation speaks to an extraordinary persistence. In bringing those dynasties and their cultures out of the shadows, we can begin to articulate a more complete picture of India’s past, one where regional kingdoms and local authorities sustained the fire of Indian civilization for centuries before and after the Mughals.